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"Antipater I the Idumaean (born 113 or 114 BCE,Kokkinos, Nikos. The Herodian Dynasty: Origins, Role In Society and Eclipse. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998, p.109 died 43 BCE) was the founder of the Herodian Dynasty and father of Herod the Great. According to Josephus, he was the son of Antipas and had formerly held that name. A native of Edom, southeast of Judah between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, which under the Romans came to be known as Idumaea, Antipater became a powerful official under the later Hasmonean kings and subsequently became a client of the Roman general Pompey the Great when Pompey conquered Judah in the name of Roman Republic. When Julius Caesar defeated Pompey, Antipater rescued Caesar in Alexandria, and was made chief minister of Judea, as Judah became known to the Romans, with the right to collect taxes. Antipater eventually made his sons Phasaelus and Herod the governors of Jerusalem and Galilee, respectively. After the assassination of Caesar, Antipater was forced to side with Gaius Cassius Longinus against Mark Antony. The pro-Roman politics of Antipater led to his increasing unpopularity among the devout, non-Hellenised Jews. He died by poison. The diplomacy and artful politics of Antipater, as well as his insinuation into the Hasmonean court, paved the way for the rise of his son Herod the Great, who used this position to marry the Hasmonean princess Mariamne, endear himself to Rome and become king of Judea under Roman influence. Background Though historians understand that Antipater's family converted to Judaism in the second century BCE, different stories had circulated in the wake of his sons coming to power.Peterson, Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans, p.52-53 They demonstrate the tensions that existed between the Jewish people and the powerful Edomites who appear at this time. Nicolaus of Damascus, the court historian for Herod, wrote that Herod's ancestors were among the historical elite in Jerusalem who had been taken by King Nebuchadnezzar into Babylonian captivity in the sixth century BCE. This account serves two purposes; when the Persian King Cyrus sent the captives in Babylon back to Judea, it is likely that some chose to settle elsewhere. A legitimate dispersion such as this would shroud the fact that Herod's ancestry is undocumented in the meticulous records of returned Jewish families.Ezra 2 Claiming a heritage among the Jews from as early as the Babylonian captivity provides credibility for a pro-Roman and Hellenized Herod as a King over the Jews, for they were highly contemptuous of him.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.15.2. Josephus explains this rendering by critiquing its author: Nicolaus wrote to please Herod and would do so at the cost of truthfulness.Josephus, Antiquities, 16.7.1. Instead Josephus explains that Antipater's family converted to Judaism during the forced conversions by the Sadducee-influenced Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus (r. 134-104 BCE). Hyrcanus threatened that any Idumeaan who wished to maintain their land would need to be circumcised and enter into the traditions of the Jews.Josephus, Antiquities, 13.9.1. Josephus acknowledges Herod as being "by birth a Jew" and Antipater as being "of the same people" with the Jews.Josephus, Antiquities, 16.7.1.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.8.1. Nevertheless, this influential family came to be resented by many Jews for their Edomite ancestry, a fact used by the Hasmoneans and their supporters against them. As such, in a polemic against Herod to discredit him in the eyes of the Romans as unfit to become king of the Jews, Antigonus the Hasmonean is quoted by Josephus as referring to Herod as "no more than a private man, and an Idumean, i.e. a half Jew". Antipater married Cypros, a Nabataean noblewoman, which helped endear the Nabateans to him.Josephus, Wars, 1.8.9. Their marriage helped bring about a close friendship between him and King Aretas, called by Josephus "Aretas the Arabian", to whom Cypros was related. The two men had such a relationship that Antipater entrusted his children to his friend when he went to war with the Hasmonean Aristobulus II. They had four sons: Phasael, Herod, Joseph, and Pheroas, and a daughter, Salome, one of several Salomes among the Herodians.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.7.3. Antipater also had a brother named Phalion, who was killed in battle against Aristobulus at Papyron.Josephus, Wars, 1.6.3. Antipater served as a governor of Idumea under King Alexander Jannaeus and Queen Salome Alexandra, the parents of the feuding heirs. Josephus writes that he was a man of great authority among the Idumeans, both wealthy and born into a dignified family.Josephus, Wars, 1.6.2. Indeed, it is clear in the various forms of assistance that Antipater provides to both Hyrcanus II, brother of Aristobulus, and the Romans, that he possessed great resources, and brilliant military and political capabilities.Josephus, Wars, 1.8.7. At the Hasmonean court Antipater laid the foundation for Herod's ascension to the throne of Judea partly through his activities in the court of the Hasmoneans, the heirs of the Maccabees, who were the hereditary leaders of the Jews, and partly by currying favor with the Romans, who were growing more involved and dominant over the region at this time. Soon after Hyrcanus succeeded his widowed mother as ruler and took the office of the high priest, he was immediately attacked by his brother and surrendered. Hyrcanus agreed to retire from public life.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.1.2. Antipater, who seems to have succeeded his father as governor of Idumæa, had reason to fear that King Aristobulus would not retain him in this position. Antipater was known as a seditious and trouble-making man, and he exploited the weak- willed Hyrcanus for the sake of his ambition.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.1.3. After Hyrcanus stepped down, Antipater persuaded him to contend against his brother for his rightful position, and even convinced the unsuspecting and reluctant Hyrcanus that his younger brother intended to kill him.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.1.4. He arranged for Hyrcanus to come under the protection of the Arabian King Aretas III in Petra. Together they attacked Aristobulus in Jerusalem, and there was a great upheaval that drew the attention of the Roman magistrate Pompey assigned to the eastern Mediterranean province.Hayes and Mandell, The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity, p.101 Although Pompey and his lieutenant Scaurus initially ruled in Aristobulus’ favor when the brothers brought their case forward, on the third intervention Pompey ordered the brothers to wait. Aristobulus impatiently provoked a political offense that brought Pompey to appoint Hyrcanus the ethnarch of Judea.Hayes and Mandell, The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity, p.107 Hyrcanus proved ineffective as either an administrator, or more importantly, as tax collector. Antipater was able to insinuate himself into a position of influence, and soon exercised the authority that ostensibly belonged to Hyrcanus as high priest.Schiffman, Lawrence H., "Judea Under Roman Rule", From Text to Tradition, Ktav Publishing House, Hoboken, NJ, 1991 Antipater recognized Rome's growing dominance in the region and exploited it to his advantage. Due to his loyalty to Rome and reliability as a statesman, he was placed in charge of Judea, with responsibilities and privileges that included mediating civil disturbance and tax collecting.Hayes and Mandell, The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity, p.117 Roman procurator and appointments of sons With Hyrcanus established, Antipater thrived and laid the foundation for his family's success by navigating conflicts of loyalty and power-shifting within the Roman elite. When Julius Caesar and Pompey went to battle in Egypt, Pompey was killed, so Antipater in 47 BCE shifted his allegiance to Caesar, and indeed ingratiated himself with Caesar. While Caesar was besieged in Alexandria, Antipater rescued him with three thousand men and the aid of numerous nearby friends. For his "demonstrations of valor" Caesar elevated Antipater to Roman citizenship, freed him from taxes, and showered him with honors and declarations of friendship.Josephus, Wars, 1.9.3-5. Later when accused by Aristobulus’ son, Antigonus, who returned from Roman bondage to contest for power, Antipater made a great scene of his scars from fighting for Caesar's life in Egypt. He defended himself with a history of unfailing loyalty to the Romans.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.8.4. This appeal persuaded Caesar who then appointed Antipater the first Roman Procurator of Judea.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.8.5. This amity allowed the Jews a special degree of protection and freedom to govern themselves and enjoy Rome's good will.Josephus, Wars, 1.10.3. Josephus notes that with his newfound rights and honors, Antipater immediately began to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem that Pompey had destroyed when subduing Aristobulus.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.4.4. He established order by tempering civil disturbances in Judea and threatening to become a "severe master instead of a gentle governor" should the people grow seditious and unruly. Matters in Judea were finally calm for a time.Josephus, Antiquities, 14.9.1. At this time came the defining point in Antipater's legacy, whereby he made his sons, Phasael, governor of Jerusalem, and Herod governor of Galilee, to the north of Samaria between the Sea of Galilee and Mediterranean. Herod quickly set about ridding Galilee of what his court historian calls "robbers," although they may also have been people resisting Roman rule. His activities eventually resulted in complaints raised with the Sanhedrin. Assassination and legacy After the assassination of Julius Caesar, Antipater was forced to side with Cassius against Mark Antony. When Cassius came to Syria to collect troops, he began to demand harsh tributes, so much so that some entire cities and city curators were sold into slavery.Josephus, Antiquities, 11.1-2. Cassius demanded seven hundred talents out of Judea, so Antipater split the cost between his two sons. One aristocrat tasked with collecting tribute was Malichus I, who disdained Antipater and enraged Cassius by not collecting with haste.Hayes and Mandell, The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity, p.122 However, Antipater saved Malichus from death by expending one hundred talents of his own and placating Cassius’ anger.Josephus, Wars, 1.11.2. Although Antipater saved Malichus' life a second time from a different ruler, Malichus continued to despise Antipater and seek his murder. Josephus presents two opposing reasons, one which would help secure Hyrcanus against the rising threat of Herod,Josephus, Wars, 1.11.2-4. and the other being his desire to quickly dispose of Hyrcanus and take power himself.Josephus, Wars, 1.11.7. He devised multiple assassination attempts which Antipater evaded, but successfully bribed one of Hyrcanus’ cup-bearers to poison and kill Antipater.Josephus, Wars, 1.9.2-4. Antipater's work as power-broker between the Hasmoneans, the Arabians, and the Romans inaugurated dramatic dynamics and steep changes in the history of the Jewish nation. The diplomacy and artful politics of Antipater produced the Herodian dynasty; he paved the way for the rise of his son Herod the Great, who married the Hasmonean princess Mariamne,Josephus, Antiquities, 14.15.14. endeared himself to Rome, and usurped the Judean throne to become king of Judea under Roman influence. See also *Herodian dynasty *Herodian kingdom *List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers NotesCitationsReferences *Josephus, Flavius. William Whistom, translator. (2003) The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, Updated Edition(17th printing). The Antiquities of the Jews.The Wars of the Jews. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. *Gissin, Mikhail (2014). "The Dusk of Judea and the Dawn of a New Dynasty." Harpswell, ME: Brunswick Press. . *Hayes, John H., and Sara R. Mandell (1998). "The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity." Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. . *Richardson, Peter (1996). "Herod: king of the Jews and friend of the Romans." Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. . *Eisenman, Robert, 1997. James, the Brother of Jesus. Political background of Judea. External links *Jewish Encyclopedia: Antipater Category:1st-century BC Herodian rulers Category:Herodian dynasty Category:Herod the Great Category:Year of birth unknown Category:1st-century BCE Jews Category:43 BC deaths "
"Štefánik's statue on Prague's Petřín Identical statue atop war memorial in Paulhan, France Statue in Bratislava Milan Rastislav Štefánik (; 21 July 1880 – 4 May 1919) was a Slovak politician, diplomat, aviator, Freemason, and astronomer. During World War I, he served at the same time as a general in the French Army and as Minister of War for Czechoslovakia. As one of the leading members of the Czechoslovak National Council (the resistance government), he contributed decisively to the cause of Czechoslovakian sovereignty, since the status of Czech- and Slovak-populated territories was one of those in question until shortly before the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1918. His personal motto was "To Believe, To Love, To Work" (Veriť, milovať, pracovať). Early life Štefánik was born in Košariská, Austria-Hungary (now Slovakia), on 21 July 1880. He had 11 brothers and sisters, two of whom died at a young age. His father, Pavol Štefánik, was a local Lutheran pastor, and his mother was Albertína Jurenková. He attended schools in Bratislava, Sopron and Szarvas. In 1898, he began studying construction engineering in Prague. In 1900, he transferred his studies to Charles University, where he attended lectures in astronomy, physics, optics, mathematics and philosophy. For the 1902 summer semester, he went to university in Zürich. The Prague years had a great impact on Štefánik because he met many important personalities there. The philosophy lectures were given by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, the future first president of Czechoslovakia, who inspired Štefánik with the idea of co-operation between the Czechs and the Slovaks. Furthermore, Štefánik very actively participated in the work of the Slovak student association, Detvan, (and within Detvan, the so-called Hlasists group); he became acquainted with Vavro Šrobár. His studies were financed largely by Czech associations, including Českoslovanská jednota (Czechoslavic Unity) and Radhošť since he could not afford them himself. In Prague, he wrote political and artistic texts in which he tried to inform the Czechs of the disastrous situation of the Slovaks at that time. He graduated in 1904 with a doctorate in philosophy and with knowledge of astronomy: his thesis is about a star that was discovered in the Cassiopeia constellation in 1572. Scientist In 1904, he went to Paris to find a job in astronomy with a recommendation from a Czech professor who was known in Paris. Initially, he had no money and no command of French, but he was nevertheless able to obtain a job at the famous Paris-Meudon Observatory after its director, Pierre Janssen, one of the cofounders of astrophysics, saw Štefánik's talent. Štefánik owed to Janssen and Camille Flammarion his social, political and scientific career. The observatory was the most important centre for astronomy at the time so he gained massive prestige from his job. Between 20 June and 4 July 1905, Štefánik climbed Mont Blanc (he did so several more times in the following years) to observe the Moon and Mars. Then, he took part in an official French expedition to observe and record a full eclipse of the Sun in Alcossebre, Spain. He thus established his own reputation in French scientific society. He worked with Gaston Millochau, a member of the Académie Française, which made some of its members read his work. His studies and the results of his observations were published in reports to the Académie, and he received several awards for them. Later, he was invited to an international astronomer conference in Oxford on solar research. Between 1906 and 1908, he was co- director of the Mont Blanc observatories company. In 1907, Štefánik received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society. At the end of 1907, however, Janssen died and Štefánik lost his job. Since 1908, he had been charged by the French authorities with astronomical and meteorological observations, (mainly observations of solar eclipses) and political tasks in various countries all over the world, including (Algeria, Morocco, Turkistan, Russia, India, the United States, Panama, Brazil, Ecuador, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, Fiji, and Tonga). In Tahiti, he also built an observatory and a network of meteorological stations (rumour has it that much of his time in the Pacific Ocean was spent on spying on German positions). Between the trips, he regularly returned home to Košariská (the last time in 1913 for his father's funeral). In South America (especially in the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador), he had an opportunity to show his diplomatic skills for the first time. Štefánik worked in astrophysics and solar physics, and became well known for his spectral analysis of the sun's corona. He was involved in perfecting spectrography and has been considered a predecessor of Bernard Lyot. He also attempted to construct a machine for colour photography and cinematography, and he had his design patented in 1911. Diplomacy In addition to his scientific missions overseas, he also performed diplomatic tasks. He established contacts and friendships with leading scientific, artistic, political, diplomatic and business personalities. He participated in the establishment of business enterprises in France and other countries. His friends included physicist Henri Poincaré, Aymar de la Baume, Joseph Vallot (the richest man in France), architect Gustave Eiffel, Roland Bonaparte, Prime Minister Camille Chautemps, a French entrepreneur called Devousoud from Chamonix, American astronomer and admiral Simon Newcomb and American diplomat David Jayne Hill. In 1912, he received French citizenship, recognition and access to the French élite. On 20 October 1917, he was made a Grand Officier of the Legion of Honour. At the same time, he had some personal problems and a serious stomach illness, which did not get better even after two surgeries. Moreover, World War I had started in Europe. World War I Masaryk and Štefánik's monument in Košice, Slovakia. Štefánik believed that defeat of Austria-Hungary and of Imperial Germany would offer an opportunity for the Slovaks and the Czechs to gain independence from Austria-Hungary after the war. Therefore, he joined the French army and trained to become an aviator. He flew MFS-54s for the 10th Army on the Artois and was later transferred to MFS 99 Squadron on the Serbian Front. In May 1915, he flew a total of 30 missions over enemy territory. The Serbian campaign was unsuccessful, but French aviator Louis Paulhan is credited with the world's first "medevac" by flying the seriously-ill Štefánik to safety.L'homme-vent, special issue of L'Ami de Pézenas, 2010, ISSN 1240-0084. Štefánik returned to Paris at the end of 1915, where he became acquainted with Edvard Beneš and renewed his association with his former professor, Masaryk. In 1916, the three men founded the Czechoslovak National Council, which led to the government of Czecho-Slovak resistance abroad and to the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918. After 1917, he became vice president of the council. His diplomatic skills made Štefánik able to help arrange a meeting of Masaryk and Beneš to meet and obtain the support of some of the most important personalities of the Triple Entente. For example, he organized Masaryk's meeting with the French prime minister, Aristide Briand. In 1916, Štefánik and the Czecho-Slovak resistance started to organise the Czechoslovak Legions to fight against Austria-Hungary and Germany. For this purpose, Štefánik, both as the Czechoslovak Minister of War and as a French general, went to Russia in February 1917 and then to the United States, in the meantime he met Thomas Garrigue Masaryk in London in April.PRECLÍK, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie (Masaryk and legions), váz. kniha, 219 str., vydalo nakladatelství Paris Karviná, Žižkova 2379 (734 01 Karviná) ve spolupráci s Masarykovým demokratickým hnutím (Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague), 2019, , pages 25 - 38, 40 - 90, 124 - 128,140 - 148,184 - 190 He also organized legions in France and Italy. It was largely his personal diplomatic skills and contacts that made the Entente recognise the Czechoslovak National Council as a de facto government and the Czechoslovak Legions as allied forces in the summer and the autumn of 1918. In May 1918, Štefánik went to Siberia to try to rally the Czechoslovak legions to a renewal of the Eastern Front, as Bolshevik Russia had withdrawn from the war by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and Austria-Hungary in March 1918. The Czechoslovak Legions rebelled against a subsequent Bolshevik order to disarm and so gained the support of the Allies. Štefánik then decided that his initial plan was no longer feasible. Independence In January 1919, after the war ended, Štefánik went from Russia to France and Italy, where he organized the March retreat of Czechoslovak troops from Siberia to Paris. In addition, his diplomatic skills were needed to solve disagreements between the French and the Italian missions in Czechoslovakia. In April, he went from Paris to Rome to negotiate with the Italian Ministry of War, where he met with his fiancée, Juliana Benzoni, for the last time. Then, he went to the main Italian military base in Padua, where he agreed with General Armando Diaz to dissolve the Italian military mission in Czechoslovakia. Sources do not substantiate rumours of disagreements arising between Štefánik and Beneš or Masaryk, mainly on the position of Slovakia in Czechoslovakia. On the contrary, telegrams sent by Štefánik from Vladivostok to the Czechoslovak National Council in Paris on 7 December 1918 indicate that Štefánik had a good relationship with them. To Masaryk, he wrote "with my filial feelings and a great patriotic happiness, I salute you, venerable professor, as the first president of the Czechoslovak Republic". To the President of the Council, Karel Kramář, he wrote, "Thank you, my dear president, for having chosen me as member of our National Ministry. You and your other co-workers can be sure of my loyalty and my fraternal feelings". To Beneš, he was even more friendly by using informal pronouns (he used formal pronouns to address Masaryk and Kramář): "Mr. Beneš, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Prague: "I hug you affectionately, my loyal and precious companion during the hours of anxiety". (The beginning can be translated instead as "I kiss you on the cheek".)Mission Militaire Française en Sibérie, SHD/GR, 7 N 1622, in La Mémoire Conservée du Général Milan Rastislav Štefánik, page 205, by Frédéric Guelton, Émanuelle Braud, and Michal Ksinan, Service Historique de la Défense, 2008 The telegrams appear to show that Štefánik gave his full support to the union of the Czechs and Slovaks that was led by Masaryk. Masaryk continued to accord Štefánik his full confidence to the last days of his life, as demonstrated by the challenging issue that Štefánik had to solve while he was Minister of War of the Czechoslovak Republic: disputes with the military missions of France and Italy on Czechoslovak territory, according to his telegram to Masaryk on 21 April 1919, only a few days before Štefánik died.Lettre du général Štefánik, ministre de la Guerre, au president de la République Tchécoslovaque à Prague, 21 avril 1919, SHD/GR, 1 K 288(1), in La Mémoire Conservée du Général Milan Rastislav Štefánik, page 211, by Frédéric Guelton, Emanuelle Braud, and Michal Ksinan, Service Historique de la Défense, 2008 Death Štefánik's tomb When Štefánik wanted to return home to see his family, he decided to fly from Campoformido, near Udine, Italy, and to use an Italian military plane, a Caproni Ca.3. On 4 May 1919, at around 11:00, his plane tried to land near Bratislava, a military conflict area between the First Republic of Czechoslovakia and the Hungarian Soviet Republic, but crashed near Ivanka pri Dunaji. Štefánik died, along with the rest of the crew (two Italian pilots, Colonel Giotto Mancinelli Scotti and Sergeant Umberto Merlino, as well as a mechanic-radiotelegrapher, Gabriel Aggiusto). The reason for the crash is disputed. The official, albeit false, explanation was that the airplane crashed because of bad weather, but it was really sunny with only mild wind. However, the official thorough investigation was not performed for more than seven years. At the time of the crash, Vavro Šrobár and his entire government had left Bratislava for Skalica, to plant trees as a memorial to the founding of the new Czechoslovak Republic.Marcell Jankovics, "Húsz esztendő Pozsonyban", p. 89 (Hungarian) The Hungarian communists, in the middle of Bratislava's Franz Joseph Bridge, could not have shot down the plane. The Italian plane's identifying colours, a rumour had it, were mistaken for the similar marking of a Hungarian plane so the unannounced, unknown airplane was shot down by the Czechoslovak Army. However, the respected Zrínyi Miklós National Defense University in Budapest, in a joint article with the Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik in Slovakia, published a paper, citing the Italian eyewitness First Lieutenant Martinelli- Scotti: "in the course of the first landing attempt, the wheels touched the landing path, after which the cooling water immediately started leaking. That caused the overheating of the engines. During the second landing attempt, one of the engines exploded, resulting in catastrophe".Milan Rastislav Štefánik (1880–1919), by Dr. Klára Siposné Keckskeméthy and Alexandra Sipos, in Hadtudományi Szemle, p.91, Budapest, 2010, (Hungarian), online. Retrieved 08/21/15 The paper also stated that the accident report from the Italian inquiry board was biased toward ruling out both human error by the Italian crew and manufacturing defects Legacy Airbus ACJ319 of Slovak Government Flying Service portraying Milan Rastislav Štefánik Štefánik's tomb was built in 1927 to 1928 on Bradlo Hill in Brezová pod Bradlom. The monumental but austere memorial was designed by Dušan Jurkovič. 5000 Slovak koruna The minor planet 3571 Milanštefánik (discovered 1982 at Kleť Observatory) was named after him. Bratislava Airport (also called Bratislava-Ivanka) was named M.R. Štefánik Airport. (Slovak: Letisko M. R. Štefánika) Slovak Government Flying Service aircraft Airbus 319 and Fokker 100 are painted with Štefánik's portrait. The Slovak Armed Forces Academy is named as Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik. The transport wing of the Slovak Air Force located at Malacky Air Base was named as Transport Wing of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik. In 2019, Slovakia will launch a 2 euro commemorative coin commemorating the 100th death anniversary of Štefánik.. In 2019, Štefánik was selected as the "Greatest Slovak" in the Slovak version of the British programme 100 Greatest Britons. See also * History of Slovakia * History of Czechoslovakia * M. R. Štefánik Airport * List of firsts in aviation References * * Richard McKim: "Milan Štefánik and the rotation period of Venus", Journal of the British Astronomical Association vol. 117, p. 7-8, 2007. * Kautský, Emil Karol: Kauza Štefánik - Legendy, fakty an otázniky okolo vzniku Česko - Slovenskej republiky. Matica Slovenská. Martin, 2004 * Štvrtého mája – atentát na slovenského kráľa * M.R.. 1880 – 1919 at www.stefanik.net Milan Rastislav Štefánik museum * Milan-Rastislav-Stefanik-(1880–1919) at tfsimon.com * The Czech and Slovak Legion in Siberia, 1917–1922. McFarland Publishing, 2012 * (in czech) - speech of E. Beneš on behalf of the 10th anniversary of death of Stefanik BENEŠ, Edvard. Štefánik a jeho odkaz : přednáška k desátému výročí jeho smrti. Praha : ČIN, 1929. 66 p. - available online at University Library in Bratislava Digital Library Category:1880 births Category:1919 deaths Category:People from Myjava District Category:Slovak scientists Category:Slovak aviators Category:Czechoslovak politicians Category:Slovak Lutherans Category:Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Czechoslovakia Category:Independence activists Category:Slovak Freemasons Category:Slovak astronomers "
"MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) is a research institute at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) formed by the 2003 merger of the Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) and the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (AI Lab). Housed within the Ray and Maria Stata Center, CSAIL is the largest on-campus laboratory as measured by research scope and membership. Research activities CSAIL's research activities are organized around a number of semi-autonomous research groups, each of which is headed by one or more professors or research scientists. These groups are divided up into seven general areas of research: * Artificial intelligence * Computational biology * Graphics and vision * Language and learning * Theory of computation * Robotics * Systems (includes computer architecture, databases, distributed systems, networks and networked systems, operating systems, programming methodology, and software engineering among others) In addition, CSAIL hosts the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). History Computing research at MIT began with Vannevar Bush's research into a differential analyzer and Claude Shannon's electronic Boolean algebra in the 1930s, the wartime MIT Radiation Laboratory, the post-war Project Whirlwind and Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), and MIT Lincoln Laboratory's SAGE in the early 1950s. At MIT, researches in the field of artificial intelligence began in late 1950s. Project MAC On July 1, 1963, Project MAC (the Project on Mathematics and Computation, later backronymed to Multiple Access Computer, Machine Aided Cognitions, or Man and Computer) was launched with a $2 million grant from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Project MAC's original director was Robert Fano of MIT's Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE). Fano decided to call MAC a "project" rather than a "laboratory" for reasons of internal MIT politics - if MAC had been called a laboratory, then it would have been more difficult to raid other MIT departments for research staff. The program manager responsible for the DARPA grant was J. C. R. Licklider, who had previously been at MIT conducting research in RLE, and would later succeed Fano as director of Project MAC. Project MAC would become famous for groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation. Its contemporaries included Project Genie at Berkeley, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and (somewhat later) University of Southern California's (USC's) Information Sciences Institute. An "AI Group" including Marvin Minsky (the director), John McCarthy (inventor of Lisp) and a talented community of computer programmers was incorporated into the newly formed Project MAC. It was interested principally in the problems of vision, mechanical motion and manipulation, and language, which they view as the keys to more intelligent machines. In the 1960s and 1970s the AI Group shared a computer room with a computer (initially a PDP-6, and later a PDP-10) for which they built a time-sharing operating system called Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS). The early Project MAC community included Fano, Minsky, Licklider, Fernando J. Corbató, and a community of computer programmers and enthusiasts among others who drew their inspiration from former colleague John McCarthy. These founders envisioned the creation of a computer utility whose computational power would be as reliable as an electric utility. To this end, Corbató brought the first computer time-sharing system, Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), with him from the MIT Computation Center, using the DARPA funding to purchase an IBM 7094 for research use. One of the early focuses of Project MAC would be the development of a successor to CTSS, Multics, which was to be the first high availability computer system, developed as a part of an industry consortium including General Electric and Bell Laboratories. In 1966, Scientific American featured Project MAC in the September thematic issue devoted to computer science, that was later published in book form. At the time, the system was described as having approximately 100 TTY terminals, mostly on campus but with a few in private homes. Only 30 users could be logged in at the same time. The project enlisted students in various classes to use the terminals simultaneously in problem solving, simulations, and multi-terminal communications as tests for the multi-access computing software being developed. AI Lab and LCS In the late 1960s, Minsky's artificial intelligence group was seeking more space, and was unable to get satisfaction from project director Licklider. University space- allocation politics being what it is, Minsky found that although Project MAC as a single entity could not get the additional space he wanted, he could split off to form his own laboratory and then be entitled to more office space. As a result, the MIT AI Lab was formed in 1970, and many of Minsky's AI colleagues left Project MAC to join him in the new laboratory, while most of the remaining members went on to form the Laboratory for Computer Science. Talented programmers such as Richard Stallman, who used TECO to develop EMACS, flourished in the AI Lab during this time. Those researchers who did not join the smaller AI Lab formed the Laboratory for Computer Science and continued their research into operating systems, programming languages, distributed systems, and the theory of computation. Two professors, Hal Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman, chose to remain neutral — their group was referred to variously as Switzerland and Project MAC for the next 30 years. Among much else, the AI Lab led to the invention of Lisp machines and their attempted commercialization by two companies in the 1980s: Symbolics and Lisp Machines Inc. This divided the AI Lab into "camps" which resulted in a hiring away of many of the talented programmers. The incident inspired Richard Stallman's later work on the GNU Project. "Nobody had envisioned that the AI lab's hacker group would be wiped out, but it was." ... "That is the basis for the free software movement — the experience I had, the life that I've lived at the MIT AI lab — to be working on human knowledge, and not be standing in the way of anybody's further using and further disseminating human knowledge".Transcript of Richard Stallman's Speech , 28 October 2002, at the International Lisp Conference, from gnu.org, accessed September 2012 CSAIL On the fortieth anniversary of Project MAC's establishment, July 1, 2003, LCS was merged with the AI Lab to form the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, or CSAIL. This merger created the largest laboratory (over 600 personnel) on the MIT campus and was regarded as a reuniting of the diversified elements of Project MAC. In 2018, CSAIL launched a five-year collaboration program with IFlytek, a company sanctioned the following year for allegedly using its technology for surveillance and human rights abuses in Xinjiang. In October 2019, MIT announced that it would review its partnerships with sanctioned firms such as iFlyTek and SenseTime. In April 2020, the agreement with iFlyTek was terminated. Offices From 1963 to 2004, Project MAC, LCS, the AI Lab, and CSAIL had their offices at 545 Technology Square, taking over more and more floors of the building over the years. In 2004, CSAIL moved to the new Ray and Maria Stata Center, which was built specifically to house it and other departments. Outreach activities The IMARA (from Swahili word for "power") group sponsors a variety of outreach programs that bridge the global digital divide. Its aim is to find and implement long-term, sustainable solutions which will increase the availability of educational technology and resources to domestic and international communities. These projects are run under the aegis of CSAIL and staffed by MIT volunteers who give training, install and donate computer setups in greater Boston, Massachusetts, Kenya, Native American Indian tribal reservations in the American Southwest such as the Navajo Nation, the Middle East, and Fiji Islands. The CommuniTech project strives to empower under- served communities through sustainable technology and education and does this through the MIT Used Computer Factory (UCF), providing refurbished computers to under-served families, and through the Families Accessing Computer Technology (FACT) classes, it trains those families to become familiar and comfortable with computer technology.Outreach activities at CSAIL - CSAIL homepage, MIT. Notable researchers (Including members and alumni of CSAIL's predecessor laboratories) * MacArthur Fellows Tim Berners-Lee, Erik Demaine, Dina Katabi, Daniela L. Rus, Regina Barzilay, Peter Shor, Richard Stallman, and Joshua Tenenbaum * Turing Award recipients Leonard M. Adleman, Fernando J. Corbató, Shafi Goldwasser, Butler W. Lampson, John McCarthy, Silvio Micali, Marvin Minsky, Ronald L. Rivest, Adi Shamir, Barbara Liskov, Michael Stonebraker, and Tim Berners-Lee * IJCAI Computers and Thought Award recipients Terry Winograd, Patrick Winston, David Marr, Gerald Jay Sussman, Rodney Brooks * Rolf Nevanlinna Prize recipients Madhu Sudan, Peter Shor, Constantinos Daskalakis * Gödel Prize recipients Shafi Goldwasser (two-time recipient), Silvio Micali, Maurice Herlihy, Charles Rackoff, Johan Håstad, Peter Shor, and Madhu Sudan * Grace Murray Hopper Award recipients Robert Metcalfe, Shafi Goldwasser, Guy L. Steele, Jr., Richard Stallman, and W. Daniel Hillis * Textbook authors Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman, Richard Stallman, Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Patrick Winston, Ronald L. Rivest, Barbara Liskov, John Guttag, Jerome H. Saltzer, Frans Kaashoek, Clifford Stein, and Nancy Lynch * David D. Clark, former chief protocol architect for the Internet; co-author with Jerome H. Saltzer (also a CSAIL member) and David P. Reed of the influential paper "End-to-End Arguments in Systems Design" * Eric Grimson, expert on computer vision and its applications to medicine, appointed Chancellor of MIT March 2011 * Bob Frankston, co-developer of VisiCalc, the first computer spreadsheet * Seymour Papert, inventor of the Logo programming language * Joseph Weizenbaum, creator of the ELIZA computer-simulated therapist Notable alumni * Robert Metcalfe, who later invented Ethernet at Xerox PARC and later founded 3Com Directors ;Directors of Project MAC * Robert Fano, 1963–1968 * J. C. R. Licklider, 1968–1971 * Edward Fredkin, 1971–1974 * Michael Dertouzos, 1974–1975 ;Directors of the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory * Marvin Minsky, 1970–1972 * Patrick Winston, 1972–1997 * Rodney Brooks, 1997–2003 ;Directors of the Laboratory for Computer Science * Michael Dertouzos, 1975–2001 * Victor Zue, 2001–2003 ;Directors of CSAIL * Rodney Brooks, 2003–2007 * Victor Zue, 2007–2011 * Anant Agarwal, 2011–2012 * Daniela L. Rus, 2012– See also * Artificial intelligence * Glossary of artificial intelligence * CERIAS * History of operating systems * Knight keyboard * Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory References Further reading * , Chious et al. — includes important information on the Incompatible Timesharing System * Weizenbaum. Rebel at Work: a documentary film with and about Joseph Weizenbaum * External links * of CSAIL, successor of the AI Lab * Oral history interview with Robert M. Fano. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * Oral history interview with Lawrence G. Roberts. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * Oral history interview with J. C. R. Licklider. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * Oral history interview with Marvin L. Minsky. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * Oral history interview with Terry Allen Winograd. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * Oral history interview with Wesley Clark. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * Oral history interview with Fernando J. Corbató, Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis * "A Marriage of Convenience: The Founding of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory", Chious et al. — includes important information on the Incompatible Timesharing System. * Brochure published by the MIT Lab for Computer Science (formerly Project Mac) in 1975 gives a brief historical glimpse of their activities and faces twenty years before. Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Category:Artificial intelligence laboratories Category:Computer science institutes in the United States Category:Laboratories in the United States Category:Information technology research institutes Category:Research institutes in Massachusetts Category:Robotics organizations Category:Scientific organizations established in 2003 Category:2003 establishments in Massachusetts Category:2003 in computing Category:History of artificial intelligence "