❤️ Automated X-ray inspection 🐠

"X-ray of an electronic circuit board (zoom series into an old token ring network adapter board). Automated inspection (AXI) is a technology based on the same principles as automated optical inspection (AOI). It uses as its source, instead of visible light, to automatically inspect features, which are typically hidden from view. Automated X-ray inspection is used in a wide range of industries and applications, predominantly with two major goals: # Process optimization, i.e. the results of the inspection are used to optimize following processing steps, # Anomaly detection, i.e. the result of the inspection serve as a criterion to reject a part (for scrap or re-work). Whilst AOI is mainly associated with electronics manufacturing (due to widespread use in PCB manufacturing), AXI has a much wider range of applications. It ranges from the quality check of alloy wheels"Automated Radioscopic Inspection of Aluminum Die Castings", Domingo Mery, Departamento de Ciencia de la Computación Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Av. Vicuña Mackena 4860(183) Santiago de Chile http://www.ndt.net/article/v12n12/mery.pdf to the detection of bone fragmentsThickness-compensated X-ray imaging detection of bone fragments in deboned poultry—model analysis Y Tao, JG Ibarra - Transactions of the ASAE, 200 - elibrary.asabe.org http://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=2725 in processed meat. Wherever large numbers of very similar items are produced according to a defined standard, automatic inspection using advanced image processing and pattern recognition software (Computer vision) has become a useful tool to ensure quality and improve yield in processing and manufacturing. Principle of Operation While optical inspection produces full color images of the surface of the object, x-ray inspection transmits x-rays through the object and records gray scale images of the shadows cast. The image is then processed by image processing software that detects the position and size/ shape of expected features (for process optimization) or presence/ absence of unexpected/ unintended objects or features (for anomaly detection). X-rays are generated by an x-ray tube, usually located directly above or below the object under inspection. A detector located the opposite side of the object records an image of the x-rays transmitted through the object. The detector either converts the x-rays first into visible light which is imaged by an optical camera, or detects directly using an x-ray sensor array. The object under inspection may be imaged at higher magnification by moving the object closer to the x-ray tube, or at lower magnification closer to the detector. Since the image is produced due to the different absorption of x-rays when passing through the object, it can reveal structures inside the object that are hidden from outside view. Applications With the advancement of image processing software the number applications for automated x-ray inspection is huge and constantly growing. The first applications started off in industries where the safety aspect of components demanded a careful inspection of each part produced (e.g. welding seams for metal parts in nuclear power stations) because the technology was expectedly very expensive in the beginning. But with wider adoption of the technology, prices came down significantly and opened automated x-ray inspection up to a much wider field- partially fueled again by safety aspects (e.g. detection of metal, glass or other materials in processed food) or to increase yield and optimize processing (e.g. detection of size and location of holes in cheese to optimize slicing patterns). In mass production of complex items (e.g. in electronics manufacturing), an early detection of defects can drastically reduce overall cost, because it prevents defective parts from being used in subsequent manufacturing steps. This results in three major benefits: a) it provides feedback at the earliest possible state that materials are defective or process parameters got out of control, b) it prevents adding value to components that are already defective and therefore reduces the overall cost of a defect, and c) it increases the likelihood of field defects of the final product, because the defect may not be detected at later stages in quality inspection or during functional testing due to the limited set of test patterns. Use of AXI in the Food Industry Foreign body detection, fill level control, and process control are the three main areas for the use of AXI in the food industry. Especially in packaged goods at the end of the filling and packaging line the use of X-ray scanners has become the norm, rather than the exception. It is often used in combination with other QA measures, especially inline check weighers. Most of it is limited to a good/ bad check, i.e. it produces rejects after the AXI station, but in some applications it is directly used for process control where the data from the AXI are fed to the process and can control other variables. An often cited example is the control of the thickness of cheese slices after an AXI determined the distribution and position of 'holes' inside the cheese block. (to ensure consistent total package weight). Recently, automated methods have been developed for X-ray inspection of food passing by on a conveyor belt. Use of AXI in electronics manufacturing The increasing usage of ICs (integrated circuits) with packages such as BGAs (ball grid array) where the connections are underneath the chip and not visible, means that ordinary optical inspection is impossible. Because the connections are underneath the chip package there is a greater need to ensure that the manufacturing process is able to accommodate these chips correctly. Additionally the chips that use BGA packages tend to be the larger ones with many connections. Therefore, it is essential that all the connections are made correctly.X-Ray Inspection for PCB and BGA AXI is often paired with the testing provided by boundary scan test, in-circuit test, and functional test. Process As BGA connections are not visible the only alternative is to use a low level inspection. AXI is able to find faults such as opens, shorts, insufficient solder, excessive solder, missing electrical parts, and mis-aligned components. Defects are detected and repaired within short debug time. These inspection systems are more costly than ordinary optical systems, but they are able to check all the connections, even those underneath the chip package. Related technologies The following are related technologies and are also used in electronic production to test for the correct operation of electronics printed circuit boards. * In-circuit test (ICT) * Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) * Automated optical inspection (AOI) * Functional testing (see acceptance testing) References Category:Hardware testing Category:X-rays Category:Printed circuit board manufacturing "

❤️ HMAS Launceston (ACPB 94) 🐠

"HMAS Launceston (ACPB 94) is an Armidale-class patrol boat of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). Design and construction The Armidale-class patrol boats are long, with a beam of , a draught of , and a standard displacement of 270 tons.Saunders (ed.), IHS Jane's Fighting Ships 2012–2013, p. 33 The semi- displacement vee hull is fabricated from aluminium alloy, and each vessel is built to a combination of Det Norske Veritas standards for high-speed light craft and RAN requirements.Kerr, Plain sailing The Armidales can travel at a maximum speed of , and are driven by two propeller shafts, each connected to an MTU 16V M70 diesel. The ships have a range of at , allowing them to patrol the waters around the distant territories of Australia, and are designed for standard patrols of 21 days, with a maximum endurance of 42 days. The main armament of the Armidale class is a Rafael Typhoon stabilised gun mount fitted with an M242 Bushmaster autocannon. Two machine guns are also carried.Heron & Powell, in Australian Maritime Issues 2006, p. 132 Boarding operations are performed by two , waterjet propelled rigid-hulled inflatable boats (RHIBs). Each RHIB is stored in a dedicated cradle and davit, and is capable of operating independently from the patrol boat as it carries its own communications, navigation, and safety equipment.Heron & Powell, in Australian Maritime Issues 2006, p. 131 Each patrol boat has a standard ship's company of 21 personnel, with a maximum of 29.Wertheim (ed.), The Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World, p. 22 The Armidales do not have a permanently assigned ship's company; instead, they are assigned to divisions at a ratio of two vessels to three companies, which rotate through the vessels and allow the Armidales to spend more time at sea, without compromising sailors' rest time or training requirements.Kerr, Patrol boats shake down fuel faults A 20-berth auxiliary accommodation compartment was included in the design for the transportation of soldiers, illegal fishermen, or unauthorised arrivals; in the latter two cases, the compartment could be secured from the outside.McKenna, Gas risk remains for navy boats However, a malfunction in the sewerage treatment facilities aboard in August 2006 pumped hydrogen sulphide and carbon monoxide into the compartment, non-fatally poisoning four sailors working inside, after which use of the compartment for accommodation was banned across the class. Launceston was constructed by Austal at their shipyard in Henderson, Western Australia. She was commissioned in Launceston, Tasmania on 22 September 2007. Operational history She is based in Cairns and performs border protection and fisheries protection patrols. Launceston was used for pick-up filming during the creation of the second season of Australian drama series Sea Patrol in 2008. The footage was conflated with the main footage of sister ship to create the fictional HMAS Hammersley, the ship the series is set on. CitationsReferences ;Books * ** The chapter is available separately as Semaphore, Issue 4, 2006 in PDF and HTML formats. * * ;Journal and news articles ;Websites and other media * External links *Royal Australian Navy webpage for HMAS Launceston (III) Category:Ships built by Austal Category:Active naval ships of Australia Category:Armidale-class patrol boats Category:2007 ships "

❤️ Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air 🐠

"Title page from Experiments and Observations Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–86) is a six-volume work published by 18th- century British polymath Joseph Priestley which reports a series of his experiments on "airs" or gases, most notably his discovery of oxygen gas (which he called "dephlogisticated air").Priestley, Joseph. Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. London W. Bowyer and J. Nichols, 1774; —. Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. Vol. 2. London: Printed for J. Johnson, 1775; —. Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. London: Printed for J. Johnson, 1777. There are several different editions of these volumes, each important. Airs While working as a companion for Lord Shelburne, Priestley had a great deal of free time to engage in scientific investigations. The Earl even set up a laboratory for him. Priestley's experiments during his years in Calne were almost entirely confined to "airs" and from this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air.See Gibbs 67–83 for a description of all of his experiments during this time; Thorpe, 170ff. These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements; as one early biographer writes: "taken collectively, [Priestley] did more than those of any one of his contemporaries to uproot and destroy the only generalisation by which his immediate predecessors had sought to group and connect the phenomena of chemistry", however "he was wholly unable to perceive this fact."Thorpe, 167–68. Priestley's work on "airs" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer points out, it "has been seen as a branch of physics, or chemistry, or natural philosopholy poption."Schaffer, 152. Also, the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley; he argued in them that science could destroy "undue and usurped authority," writing that the government has "reason to tremble even at an air pump or an electrical machine."Qtd. in Kramnick, 11–12; see also Schofield, Vol. 2, 121–124. Pneumatic trough, glass collecting cylinders and other equipment used by Priestley in his experiments on gases. The right-hand cylinder exhibits a sprig of mint which showed that plants generated oxygen from carbon dioxide Priestley's first volume of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air outlined several important discoveries: experiments that would eventually lead to the discovery of photosynthesis and the discovery of several airs: "nitrous air" (nitric oxide, NO), "vapor of spirit of salt" (later called "acid air" or "marine acid air"; anhydrous hydrochloric acid, HCl), "alkaline air" (ammonia, NH3), "diminished" or "dephlogisticated nitrous air" (nitrous oxide, N2O), and "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen, O2). Priestley also developed the "nitrous air test", which tested for the "goodness of air": using a "pneumatic trough", he would mix nitrous air with a test sample, over water or mercury, and measure the decrease in volume—the principle of eudiometry.Fruton, 20; 29 After a small history of the study of airs, he explained his own experiments in an open and sincere style: "whatever he knows or thinks he tells: doubts, perplexities, blunders are set down with the most refreshing candour."Schofield, Vol. 2, 98; quotation from Thorpe, 171. He also invented and described cheap and easy-to-assemble experimental apparatus. His colleagues therefore believed that they could easily reproduce Priestley's experiments to verify them or to answer the questions that had puzzled him.Schofield, Vol. 1, 259–69; Jackson, 110–14; Thorpe, 76–77; 178–79; Uglow, 229–39. Although many of his results puzzled him, Priestley used phlogiston theory to resolve the difficulties. This theory, however, led him to conclude that there were only three types of "air": "fixed", "alkaline", and "acid". Priestley ignored the burgeoning chemistry of his day, indeed dismissing it in these volumes. Instead, he focused on gases and the "changes in their sensible properties", as had natural philosophers before him. He isolated carbon monoxide (CO) but seems not to have realised that it was a separate "air" from the others that he had discovered.Schofield, Vol. 2, 103; 93–105; Uglow, 240–41; see Gibbs 105–116 for a description of these experiments. Discovery of oxygen After the publication of the first volume of Experiments and Observations, Priestley undertook another set of experiments. In August 1774 he isolated an "air" that appeared to be completely new, but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne. While in Paris, however, Priestley managed to replicate the experiment for others, including Antoine Lavoisier. After returning to Britain in January 1775, he continued his experiments and discovered vitriolic acid air (sulphur dioxide, SO2). In March he wrote to several people regarding the new "air" that he had discovered several months earlier. One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and he published a paper in Philosophical Transactions titled "An Account of further Discoveries in Air." Priestley called the new substance "dephlogisticated air" and described it as "five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air."Qtd. in Schofield, Vol. 2, 107. He had discovered oxygen gas (O2). As revised for Experiments and Observations, his paper begins: > The contents of this section will furnish a very striking illustration of > the truth of a remark which I have more than once made in my [natural] > philosophical writings … that more is owing to what we call chance—that is, > philosophically speaking, to the observations of events rising from unknown > causes than to any proper design or preconceived theory in this business. … > For my own part, I will frankly acknowledge that at the commencement of my > experiments recited in this section I was so far from having formed any > hypothesis that led to the discoveries I made in pursuing them that they > would have appeared very improbable to me had I been told of them; and when > the decisive facts did at length obtrude themselves upon my notice it was > very slowly, and with great hesitation, that I yielded to the evidence of my > senses. [emphasis Priestley's]Qtd. in Thorpe, 192. Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of Experiments and Observations on Air and published it in 1776. He does not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argues in the preface how important such discoveries are to rational religion. His paper narrates the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements. Thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen.Schofield, Vol. 2, 105–119; see also Jackson, 126–27; 163–64; 166–174; Gibbs, 118–123; Uglow, 229–231; 241. Such dating is significant as Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele both have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (not "dephlogisticated air").Kuhn, 53–55. Scientific work on Airs In this section, a list of all Priestley's scientific books on Airs has been compiled. The list doesn't include any of the several scientific papers, that he also wrote to various journals on the subject (see: List of works by Joseph Priestley). Books from 1772–1790: * Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. London, 1772. * Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London, 1774. * Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London, 1775. * Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.3. London, 1777. * Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, Vol.1. [Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.4]. London, 1779. * Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, Vol.2. [Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.5]. Birmingham, 1781. * Experiments Relating to Phlogiston. London, 1784. * Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, Vol.3. [Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.6]. Birmingham, 1786. * Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1–6. In 3 volumes, being the former 6 abridged and methodised, with many additions. Birmingham, 1790. Books from 1791–1803: * Experiments on the Generation of Air from Water; to which are prefixed, Experiments relating to the Decomposition of Dephlogisticated and Inflammable Air. London, 1793. * Heads of Lectures on a Course of Experimental Philosophy; delivered at the New College in Hackney. [First 10 of 36 lectures are about Airs]. London, 1794. * Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston and the Decomposition of Water. Philadelphia, 1796. * Experiments and Observations relating to the Analysis of Atmospherical Air; also farther Experiments relating to the Generation of Air from Water. [Red before the American Philosophical Society, Feb.5th and 19th in 1796, and printed in their Transactions. To which are added, Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston, and the Decomposition of Water, addressed to Messrs. Berthollet &c;]. London, 1796. * Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston and the Decomposition of Water, Part II. Philadelphia, 1797.Schofield, Robert E. The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press (2004). . * Doctrine of Phlogiston established and that of the Composition of Water refuted. Northumberland, 1800. * Doctrine of Phlogiston established, with Observations on the Conversion of Iron into Steel, in a Letter to Mr. Nicholson. Printed in 1803. NotesBibliography *Fruton, Joseph S. Methods and Styles in the Development of Chemistry. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2002. *Gibbs, F. W. Joseph Priestley: Adventurer in Science and Champion of Truth. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1965. *Jackson, Joe, A World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat And The Race to Discover Oxygen. New York: Viking, 2005. . *Kramnick, Isaac. "Eighteenth-Century Science and Radical Social Theory: The Case of Joseph Priestley's Scientific Liberalism." Journal of British Studies 25 (1986): 1–30. *Kuhn, Thomas. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. . *Schaffer, Simon. "Priestley Questions: An Historiographic Survey." History of Science 22.2 (1984): 151–83. *Schofield, Robert E. The Enlightenment of Joseph Priestley: A Study of his Life and Work from 1733 to 1773. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997. . *Schofield, Robert E. The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004. . *Thorpe, T.E. Joseph Priestley. London: J. M. Dent, 1906. *Uglow, Jenny. The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. . External links * The Discovery of Oxygen – background and experiments. Category:1774 books Category:Science books Category:Books by Joseph Priestley Category:1774 in science Category:Oxygen "